River Dove Catchment Management Plan Sample

River Dove Catchment Management Plan Example

Dove Catchment Management Plan SampleA catchment management plan (CMP) is a document that provides a long-term strategy or framework for the sustainable utilisation and development of water and related resources in a given area. River Dove is an important in the UK supplying water for community, commercial, and industrial use and providing habitat for several species, some of them endangered.  Considering the importance of River Dove to the UK and the sources of pollution in the area, it is only prudent that a catchment management plan is developed for the river. This research paper sample presents a River Dove catchment management plan sample. In case you are looking for a Dove catchment management plan sample doc or download, here is a River Dove catchment management plan sample pdf.

Download the River dove catchment management plan sample pdf

Dove Catchment Area Management Plan

General Site Information

River Dove catchment is situated in Derbyshire and Staffordshire, covering an approximate area of 1,020km2 according to the Dove Catchment Partnership in 2022. Originating at Axe Edge in the Peak District, about five kilometers from Buxton, the Dove is a tributary of the River Trent, flowing southward. Along its course, it is joined by various tributaries such as the Tean, Churnet, and Manifold rivers (Agricultural and Environmental Data (AEDA), 2013). The river passes through several towns, including Ashbourne, Uttoxeter, Cheadle, Tutbury, Hilton, and Leek, contributing to the local economies and landscapes. Rural areas within the Dove catchment also benefit from the river, supporting community life. Moreover, the Dove traverses the Peak District National Park, offering habitat and movement corridors for numerous wildlife species. The catchment area is home to several Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) and protected areas, including the Tittesworth Reservoir (a water supply source) and the South Pennine Moors special area of conservation. In total, the Dove catchment area encompasses 31 water bodies, including 17 rivers, canals, surface water bodies, and four lakes (Environment Agency, 2022).

Description

The upper region of the River Dove catchment is predominantly characterized by small villages, pastureland, and scattered farms and cottages, as indicated by Derbyshire County Council (n.d.). Within these areas, the primary activities include intensive dairy farming, sheep rearing, and arable cropping, as highlighted by Derbyshire County Council (n.d.a). Livestock dipping, a common practice for controlling pests and diseases, continues to be prevalent in the upper catchment, according to The Wild Trout Trust (2009). Download the complete River Dove catchment management plan sample pdf.

Segmentation Targeting and Positioning Volkswagen

segmentation targeting and positioning strategy exampleSegmentation, marketing, and positioning (STP) is an important concept and practice in marketing. A real life STP marketing case study example can help you understand what STP is and how it is applied by companies. 

 

This article presents a segmentation targeting and positioning strategy example or STP example company.  It also presents a segmenting targeting positioning example. It discusses market segmentation of cars and stp model marketing example, and is related to market segmentation for car industry, automotive market segments, automotive market segmentation, and marketing stp:

  • Psychographic segmentation of automobile industry
  • Geographic segmentation of automobile industry
  • Demographic segmentation of automobile industry
  • Behavioral segmentation of automobile industry

The article basically attempts to answer the question how do car companies segment their market (focusing on Volkswagen)? Here is the STP marketing example company essay preview: 

Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning by Volkswagen

Introduction

Many successful companies across the world apply segmentation, targeting and positioning (STP) as part of their marketing strategies. Volkswagen (VW), a company that makes cars is one of the successful companies that apply STP. Established in 1937, the company manufactures several car brands including Volkswagen, Audi, Seat, Lamborghini, Skoda, Porshe, Scania, Man, Bentley, and Bugatti, (Volkswagen, 2018a; Bhasin, 2017; Volkswagen, 2018b). While its headquarters is in Wolfburg, Germany, the company has several branches and plants spread out in different parts of the world. This enables it understand and meet the needs of its global clientele in addition to affording it a robust distribution network. This paper briefly discusses segmentation and targeting before focusing on how Volkswagen has segmented its market, its target markets (segments), and how the brand is positioned.

Related Article: Market Segmentation, Targeting & Positioning (STP) Company Examples

Segmentation and Targeting

Market segmentation, according to William Stanton, is the process of dividing the heterogeneous market for a product into several sub-markets or segments, each of which tends to display homogeneity in all important aspects (Rudani, 2010; Tabavar n.d., p. 63).  Philip Kotler, on the other hand, defines segmentation as the process of dividing a market into discrete groups of buyers based on factors such as needs or characteristics, behaviour, marketing mixes, or who might require different products (Rudani, 2010). A company’s market can be partitioned or divided based on different factors. Some of the bases commonly applied in segmenting a market are demographic characteristics (such as age, gender, religion, income levels, family size), behavioural characteristics (such as brand loyalty status, usage rates/consumption levels, benefits sought by the buyer, response to a product, and occupation), geographic characteristics (such as geographic location, cultural preferences, language, population type and density (urban, rural, exurban, suburban), time zone, and climate/season, and psychographic characteristics (such as values, beliefs, interests, attitudes, lifestyles, personality traits, social status). 

Targeting, according to Bihani (2004), is the process of evaluating how attractive market segments are and choosing the segment(s) to enter. It involves making choices taking into consideration available and necessary resources. Firms have a number of options with regard to the targeting strategy to apply. The main targeting strategies that companies can apply are mass marketing, niche marketing, segmented marketing, and micromarketing (Strydom, 2005; Kotler et al., 2015).

Segmentation and Targeting by Volkswagen

Volkswagen applies segmented marketing and has its market partitioned based on a mix of psychographic, demographic, geographic, and behavioural factors to meet the specific needs of different groups of customers. The following section discusses Volkswagen’s market segmentation based on these factors.

Psychographic Segmentation and Targeting

Psychographic segmentation involves partitioning a market based on customers’ values, beliefs, interests, attitudes, lifestyles, personality traits, social status, or other psychographic factors (Camilleri, 2018). With regard to psychographic segmentation, Volkswagen has partitioned its market based on customers’ interests, values, social status, and lifestyles. In this regard some of the segments the company targets include consumers who simply need to move (or transport goods) from one place to another conveniently and affordably, sports enthusiasts, technical/engineering enthusiasts, and consumers who need luxury and comfort as will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

Vehicles such as the beetle, Polo, Golf, Jetta, Touran, and Volkswagen Amarok pick-up and are aimed at catering to the needs of consumers who simply need to move from one place to another (or transport goods) conveniently and without spending so much money; they simply wish to enjoy the utility value of a car (Schmid, 2013; Skema Business School, 2014). This customer segment include people who wish to use the car as a tool. Some customers in this segment may go for the compact cars such as the beetle, polo, and golf to conveniently move around while some customers may go for the Touran (family van) so that they can easily transport their families with relative comfort. ….

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Positioning of Volkswagen/ Volkswagen Brand Positioning

Market positioning, according to Wilkinson (2013), is the process of establishing the identity or image of a product or brand so that it is perceived in a certain way by consumers. Positioning relates to how the consumer perceives the product or brand in relation to other products or brands. It involves placing a product in such a way that it occupies a clear, distinctive, and favourable place, relative to competing products, in the minds of consumers in the target market (Walletzký, 2015). With regard to positioning, Volkswagen takes pride in being a leader in German engineering (which focuses on design precision and feel), and to this extent has in the past used the tagline “The Power of German Engineering” (Sherman, 2017). The company has also used the slogan “If only everything in life was as reliable as a Volkswagen” to highlight the brand’s reliability (Nevick, 2013)…

Conclusion

Volkswagen segments its market based on a mix of psychographic, geographic, demographic and behavioural factors to meet the specific needs of different groups of customers. With respect to psychographic segmentation, the company has segmented its market based on customers’ interests, beliefs, values, social status, and lifestyles. Some of the segments the company targets in this regard include consumers who simply need mobility, sports enthusiasts, technical/engineering enthusiasts, consumers who prioritise comfort, and individuals with high social status. With regard to demographic segmentation, VW segments its market based income level and age…

This is preview of the article. 

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Related article: Market Segmentation, Targeting & Positioning (STP) with Company Examples

Outline
Introduction
Segmentation and Targeting
 – Segmentation and Targeting by Volkswagen
       – Psychographic Segmentation
       – Demographic Segmentation
       – Geographic Segmentation
       – Behavioural Segmentation
– Positioning of Volkswagen
– Conclusion
– References

Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning by Volkswagen

 

Decolonisation and International Power Relations

Did Decolonisation Transform Power Relations in the International Economy? If not, why not?

DEcolonisation and international power relationsDecolonisation has been defined by Tuhiwai (2010, p. 3) as “the long-term process involving the bureaucratic, cultural, linguistic, and psychological divesting of colonial power”. According to Klose (2014), decolonisation is a process that involves the dissolution of colonial rule together with its economic, political, social, and cultural dimensions. Although different scholars have defined decolonization in different ways, there is wide agreement that decolonization is linked to the transfer of legal and institutional control over territories and dependencies from colonial powers to indigenously based, formally sovereign, nation states (Duara, 2004). Decolonisation, in Duara’s (2004) view, was not only a process but also a movement for political solidarity and moral justice against imperialism. There is a lot of agreement among scholars that decolonization had a significant impact on the global sphere (Collins, 2016; Office of the Historian, 2018). This notion is especially supported by the fact that within thirty years of the signing of the Charter of the United Nations in 1945, the European colonial empires in Africa and Asia completely disappeared, and in their stead stood new independent states (Klose 2014). For many territories under colonial rule, the thought of becoming independent states through the process of decolonization promised hope, freedom and prosperity. Decolonisation also promised positive changes in power relations between the newly formed independent states and imperial powers. This paper seeks to answer the question: Did decolonisation transform power relations in the international economy? If not, why not?This paper argues, based on dependency, New International Economic Order, and structuralism, that in spite of these promises, decolonisation did not truly transform power relations in the international economy.

Power in International Politics and Economy

The concept of “power” is perhaps the most fundamental in political science, international relations and political theory. Although there is general consensus regarding its importance, the definition of “power” remains a subject of great disagreement and debate. Indeed according to Barnett and Duvall (2005), scholars remain divided on how to define, conceive, study, and measure power, rendering the concept quite elusive. According to Barnett and Duvall (2005), power relates to the production of effects, in and through social relations, which determine the ability of actors to define or decide their circumstances and fate. Read more

Did Decolonisation Transform Power Relations

First Response and Emergency Care Component 2

First Response and Emergency Care Component 2 – Revision Notes/Questions

Q. Briefly explain the functions of the following components of the respiratory system: lung, diaphragm, visceral pleura, and pleural cavity. 

Q. Explain the ‘cycle of breathing’

Q. Define “elasticity” and explain the effects it has on the lungs when reduced.

Q. A man has been hit by a car and you have been called to attend to him. He seems to be unconscious. His breathing is fast and shallow and he has a weak radial pulse. Your inspection of the casualty reveals that the left side of his chest is not rising and falling equally. There is no sign of catastrophic haemorrhage, his circulation is compromised, and there is a snoring sound emanating from his airway. Suggest a treatment plan for the casualty.

Q. Label the bones on the diagram:

First Response and Emergency Care

Q. What are the functions of bone?

Q. What are the functions of muscle?

Q. What are the functions of tendons?

Q. What are the functions of ligaments?

Q. What are the functions of joints?

Q. What are the two main components of the central nervous system (CNS)?

Q. What are the functions of the Central Nervous System (CNS)?

Q. What are the functions of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

Q. Define sexual assault.

Q. A patient whose has experienced sexual assault may experience different signs, symptoms and issues. Name some of the signs, symptoms, and issues, categorising them as either physiological or psychological.

Q. You have been called to attend to a female patient who seems to have been sexually assaulted. Briefly discuss the considerations needed to care for the patient. In your discussion, ensure to touch on the following issues: the assessment of time critical injuries, forensic considerations, approach towards the patient, communications with the patient, patient’s wishes with regard to contacting the police, and care pathways (Sexual Assault Referral Centre).

Q. What are the roles of the following crew members when attending to a major incident: attendant, driver, first crew on scene, and first responder on scene?

Q. Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear and Explosive (CBRNE) incidents can have several effects. For each of the elements of CBRNE, state the routes of entry and the possible effects that should be considered.

Q. You have been called to attend to a situation in a public area that is heavily populated. A member of the public tells you that there is a rucksack that has been left unattended for an hour or so. Provide a summary of how you will initially deal with the package and how you will act when the situation is considered a terrorist incident. State what “METHANE” stands for.

Q. Briefly describe how you would manage a patient with traumatic chest injuries with a focus on open chest wound, tension pneumothorax, and flail chest.

Download the complete question set and get to know the kind of questions to expect in your First Response and Emergency Care – Component 2 exams or assignments. Find attempted solutions to these and other First Response and Emergency Care – Component 2 revision questions here

Also See:

First Response and Emergency Care – Component 1 Revision questions
First Response and Emergency Care – Component 3 Revision questions

 

Copper and Lead Levels in Aberdeen Harbour

Copper Lead Aberdeen Harbour Sediments

Here is a preview of the paper on Copper Lead Aberdeen Harbour Sediments.

Copper and Lead Levels in Aberdeen Harbour

1.0 Introduction

Anthropogenic activities are recognized as a significant contributor to the build-up of heavy metals, such as lead and copper in urban areas and marine settings, posing health risks to people’s lives and the lives or marine organisms (Yan et al., 2018; Briffa et al., 2020). Exposure of humans or marine organisms to these pollutants can result illness, poor health, or even death (Briffa et al., 2020). Lead, a well-known poison for centuries, is a subject of global public health regulations and is linked to miscarriages, brain damage, kidney damage, cancers, and even death in humans (Tchounwou, et al. 2012; WHO, 2024). Although naturally present in soils at low concentrations, studies indicate a gradual increase in environmental lead concentrations due to human activities (WHO, 2024). Copper, essential for enzymatic activity at low concentrations, acts as an enzyme inhibitor at higher levels, causing diarrhoea, vomiting, and liver disease in humans (Tchounwou, et al. 2012; Ashish et al., 2013).

Harbours, due to shipping activities, often experience severe marine pollution (Onwuegbuchunam et al., 2017; Zhang, 2020; Shahzad, 2023), leading to a rapid decline in water and sediment quality, impacting fish and marine life significantly. Unlike some pollutants, heavy metals cannot undergo biodegradation and may accumulate in sediments to toxic levels over time (Tchounwou, et al. 2012). According to the Marine Management Organisation (2015), marine sediment concentrations below 50mg/kg (dry weight) for lead and below 40mg/kg for copper fall under Action Level 1 (AL1), indicating safe levels (Appendix 1).

Situated in Aberdeen City, Aberdeen Harbour, is recognized as one of the oldest and busiest ports in the United Kingdom (Ship Technology, 2018). Handling approximately 8,000 vessels annually, the harbour contributes over £1.5 billion to the national economy by managing nearly five million tonnes of cargo (Ship Technology, 2018). The cargo, including industrial chemicals, pesticides, oil, and liquefied gas, poses a potential risk of pollution. Additionally, other sources of heavy metals entering the harbour include construction, domestic, industrial, and agricultural activities, as well as chemicals and wastes. Continue Reading (Alternative 2)

Here are some words that can be used to describe the paper:

Aberdeen harbour baseline study example
Aberdeen harbour sediments study
Aberdeen Harbour Baseline Survey
Aberdeen Harbour Baseline Survey for Environmental Status
Copper and Lead Levels in Aberdeen Harbour Sediments
Copper Lead Aberdeen Harbour Sediments

Sample data

Copper and Lead Levels in Aberdeen Harbour Sediments

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Question/Prompt/Instructions can be found here … or here

Recovery of Forest Soils Following Wildfire

Can Forest Soils Recover from Wildfire?

Can Forest Soils Recover from WildfireTedim and Leone (2020) define wildfire as any unplanned and uncontrolled fire started on shrubs or forest. National Geographic has defined the term as an uncontrolled fire that that burns in the wildland vegetation, often in rural areas. The term has also been defined by Belcher et al. (2021) as any non-structure fire other than prescribed fire that occurs in a wildland. Also called vegetation, bush, or forest fire, wildfire has been part and parcel of the earth’s history over the past 400 million years, and is thus not a new phenomenon (Belcher et al., 2021). A wildfire may ignite spontaneously as a result of natural causes such as a lightning strike or may be caused by human activities. Whatever their cause, they can greatly disturb forest soil and ecosystems especially given that fire can have a significant impact on the structural, physical, chemical, mineralogical, and biological properties of soil (Certini, 2005; Shrestha, 2009) through mechanisms such as vitalisation, erosion, oxidation, leaching, and ash transfer (Xiang et al., 2014). The recovery of soil after a forest fire is an issue of great importance to conservationists, environmentalists, governments and other players. This essay seeks to answer the question: can forest soils recover from wildfire? The paper begins by discussing the impact of fire severity on soil properties before focusing on the recovery of forest soils following a wildfire.

Impact of Fire Severity on Soil Properties

Several properties of forest soil can change as a result of exposure to a wild fire. Some of these properties include level of organic carbon, nutrients, water holding capacity, aggregate stability, and hydrophobicity (Agbeshie et al., 2022; DeBano, 1990; Santín & Doerr, 2016). The level of which these properties can be affected depend on the duration, frequency, timing, type, and intensity of fire (Certini 2005; Xiang et al., 2014). Most analysts agree that out of the three factors, fire intensity has the greatest influence on the properties of forest soil during or following a wildfire (Certini, 2005; Santín & Doerr, 2016). Recovery of forest soils following wildfire …

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Read Also: Aberdeen Harbour Baseline Survey

The Role of Cost Information in the Pricing Decision

Pricing Decisions: The Role of Cost Information In the Pricing Decision

Prompt:

The Role of Cost Information in the Pricing DecisionYou are working in the management accounting department of ABC which manufactures a range of consumer electronics products. The current range comprises 50 different products and the company launches around 10 new products every year.

Your manager has asked you to write a paper which addresses issues relating to pricing decisions for all the company’s products, with a particular focus on the prices set for new products.

The current approach used by the company is a cost based approach by which a predetermined percentage is added to the estimated full cost of the product. However the directors of the company have recently questioned this approach.

You are required to discuss the following in your paper:

  • The role of cost information in the pricing decision.
  • The advantages and limitations of the company’s current approach.
  • A range of alternative strategies for pricing products which could be adopted by the company, including a discussion of the circumstances for which the different strategies would be appropriate.

Discussions have been taking place within the company concerning the pricing of one of the products to be launched within the next three months. The current planned selling price is £60 per unit and at this price it is expected that 5,000 units will be sold over the next year. However the marketing director has suggested that the sales quantity and profits from this product could be increased by reducing the unit selling price. The production director disagrees and believes that the selling price would have to be increased to improve the level of the profit.

You are required to:

  • Analyse the relationship between selling price and the level of profit for this product based on the information provided in this briefing.
  • Within your paper, present your analysis in an appropriate format. This analysis should include an appropriate chart or charts as an integral part of your paper.
  • Provide a full commentary on your analysis. This discussion should include the assumptions in and the limitations of your approach, a discussion of the views of the two directors related to the conclusions of your analysis and an assessment of the relevance to the organisation’s pricing decisions in the light of your answer to part a).

Note: you should use a spreadsheet for the calculations which underpin the analysis presented in the paper. Your spreadsheet must be submitted to support your paper.

Additional information:

The company estimates product costs based on apportionment of overheads to products using labour hours. Prices set are based on full cost plus a 25% profit mark-up.

The following information relates to this product:

  • The manufacture of each unit of the product requires materials costing £24 and 30 minutes of direct labour at a rate of £25 per hour.
  • The variable overhead costs per unit are £5.50 per unit.
  • Fixed costs for the year to be apportioned to this product are expected to be:
  • Production costs: £24,000
  • Administration and management costs: £5,000
  • Selling costs: £1,000
  • Some market research has recently been carried out to try and determine the effect on the level of sales demand if changes were made to the selling price of the product. This market research has suggested that reducing the selling price to £57 would increase the sales volume to 5,250 units for the year whereas increasing the selling price to £63 would result in a fall in sales to 4,750 units during the same period.

Assessment criteria
(10%)  Discussion of the importance of cost information for pricing
(10%)  Discussion of the advantages and limitations of the company’s current approach.
(25%)  Review of alternative strategies for pricing products.
(10%)  Analysis of scenario
(25%)  Commentary on spreadsheet analysis and presentation of results.      
(10%)  Effective communication and appropriate style of presentation.
(10%)  Use and presentation of academic research to support arguments.

Pricing Decisions

The role of cost information in the pricing decision

Cost is one of the factors that affect pricing decisions, hence cost information is an important factor in coming up with pricing decisions (University of Minnesota, 2015). Costs can influence prices through its effect on supply. In this regard, a company will be willing to supply more products the more the cost is lower relative to the price. It is often the case that as the firm increases supply of a product, the cost of producing an additional unit initially decreases. However, a point is reached where the cost of producing an additional unit begins to rise. The company will be willing to continue to supply its products for as long as the profit it makes from selling extra units exceeds the cost of producing them (the extra units). Another way that costs influence pricing is that all the costs incurred by the firm should be recouped through its product sales (Meehan et al., 2011; Smith, 2011). This means that the higher the units of a product that a firm sells, the less each unit is required to contribute towards covering the fixed costs. This in turn implies that the firm can afford to set a lower price for its products if it applies a cost-based approach to pricing or can make higher profits if applies value-based pricing (Leijon, 2017). It is by understanding the cost of producing the products that companies can set product prices so that they (the prices) appeal to consumers and at the same time serve to maximize operating income (Tarjomefa, 2015). Continue reading

Central Traits Primacy Effect and Recency Effect

Assignment prompt:

  1. Explain the concepts of central traits, primacy effect and recency effect and their importance in the formation of attitudes.
  2. Define stereotyping and explain the possible cognitive and social functions of stereotyping.
  3. Outline theories of attitude formation and stereotyping.
  4. What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination and how is stereotyping involved in their development?
  5. Outline and critically evaluate two theories of the causes of prejudice and discrimination.

Explain the concepts of ‘central traits, primacy effect and recency effect’ and their importance in the formation of attitudes.

Based on the results of his study on personality, Gordon Allport grouped personality traits into three main categories; cardinal traits, central traits and secondary traits (Harvard University, 2021). Allport believed that traits make up the basic unit of the person’s personality and defined traits as the predisposition to respond and react in the same way to stimuli in the environment (Niwlikar, 2022). According to Allport’s theory of personality, cardinal traits are those traits that dominate an individual’s personality. These traits are at the top of the traits hierarchy and are the main controller of a person’s personality such that a person may be known for those traits only. As an example, Mahatma Gandhi is known for his honesty, Mother Theresa for altruism or kindness, and Adolf Hitler for being a ruthless dictator.

Secondary traits, which are at the base of Allport’s traits hierarchy, are present in all people and can influence behaviour. However, these traits are only expressed in certain situations or circumstances and are dependent upon immediate context (Niwlikar, 2022). On their part, central traits, which are in the middle of the hierarchy are general characteristics based on which personalities are formed. While they are not as dominating as the cardinal traits, they are the main characteristics that are used by people to describe other people.  All people have varying levels of central traits and these traits influence but do not determine a person’s behaviour.

According to Troyer (2011), the primacy effect is the tendency for individuals to recall information presented first (or at the beginning of a list) compared to information received earlier on (or in the middle of the list). On its part, the recency effect is the tendency by people to recall more clearly the information received most recently (Morrison et al., 2014). The primacy effect explains why people tend to be able to recall information that they received first. Experts believe that the information people receive first is given pre-eminence over that received subsequently. Continue reading

 

Nationalism and the Modern State

This essay attempts to answer the question: Is nationalism a product of the modern state, or was the modern state produced by nationalism?

Is Nationalism a Product of the Modern State?

Nationalism has been defined by Breuilly (2001) as political movements that seek or exercise state power and justify their actions based on nationalist arguments. It has also been defined by Hutchinson and Smith (1994) as an ideology based on the premise that a person’s commitment and loyalty to the nation state supersedes other personal or group interests. According to Breuilly (2001), three main assertions are ascribed to nationalism. The first claim is that a nation exists if it has a well-defined and distinctive personality. The second assumption is that the nation’s interests and values take precedence above those of the individual and organizations. The final assertion is that the nation must be as free as possible from the domination of other nations, governments, or entities.

Many scholars agree that there is a strong link between nationalism and the modern state (Conversi, 2012; Vincent 2010). The concept of “modern state” is fraught with dispute. Critics have condemned as insufficient the usual definition of the modern state as a human society that only claims the legal use of force inside a specified territory (Morris n.d.). Critics point out that if this definition is adopted holistically, then criminal organizations, the Roman civitas, and the Greek poleis would qualify as modern states, which is obviously absurd. Morris (n.d., p.200) defines a modern state as a political organization occupying a distinctively shaped region that asserts sovereignty over its domains and independence from other states. Scholars do not generally agree on whether the modern state is a product of nationalism or nationalism is a product of the modern state. This paper seeks to answer the question: Is nationalism a product of the modern state, or was the modern state produced by nationalism?

Many historians observe that the modern state emerged in Europe between the 15th and 18th centuries and extended to other regions of the world through colonialism and conquest (CQ Press 2015).

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Challenges Facing Psychiatric, Toxicological Expertise

Prompt: Compare and contrast the challenges facing psychiatric & toxicological expertise in the nineteenth century “Adversarial Courtroom”, and the strategies they adopted to legitimate their knowledge. 

Challenges Facing Psychiatric Toxicological ExpertiseThe involvement of experts in courts to provide expert testimony is not a new practice. As far back as the Middle Ages, physicians, sea captains, and other experts have been called on to help or testify in English courts when the facts of the case were so complicated that the judge or jury did not have adequate knowledge to make a decision (Essig 2002). Before the 18th century, judges and juries actively took part in gathering and presenting evidence, and experts often served as official advisors to courts or juries. When the legal system underwent the adversarial revolution in the 18th century, however, this situation changed as judges and juries took on more passive and neutral roles in the collection and presentation of evidence. Consequently, litigants took active charge of gathering and presenting evidence in a structured forensic setting (Essig 2002). This change saw the role of experts in courts change from being (impartial) court advisors or members of the jury to being partisan witnesses (Eigen 1995; Watson, 2006). In their roles as partisan witnesses, the experts faced a myriad of challenges which they sought to overcome through different means. This paper seeks to compare and contrast the challenges facing psychiatric and toxicological expertise in the nineteenth century “Adversarial Courtroom”, and the strategies they adopted to legitimate their knowledge.

One of the challenges faced by toxicological expertise in the adversarial court in the 1800s was to do with the transfer of knowledge from the laboratory to the courtroom. In an adversarial system, it was the norm that all expert testimony would be met with contradictions that had the potential to damaged the image of the professions that the expert witnesses represented. On the witness stand, toxicologists, psychiatrists and indeed other experts presented evidence that (scientifically) contradicted those presented by the opposing side. The effect of this was that the public developed serious doubts about the integrity of the expert witnesses and the science they professed.  In some cases, the toxicologists, physicians, and psychiatrists, in their positions as expert witnesses, were accused of   being incompetent or corrupt. In response to these accusations, the expert witnesses often cited their credibility.

In Mary Fleming’s murder trial that took place in 1896, for example, her lawyers questioned the reputation of a German chemist by the name Walter Scheele (Essig 2002). continue reading …

Challenges Facing Psychiatric & Toxicological Expertise …

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