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Kenya Con Alerts

Kenya Con Alert: Don’t be fooled, Don’t be conned

Please be advised that the following emails, websites and phone numbers may be used to con you of your hard earned money. These websites, phone numbers, emails may not belong to the companies they claim to be affiliated with. Do not lose your hard earned money. Perform due diligence before transacting with them.

Seusacco.co.ke
Website/Domain name: www.seusacco.co.ke, https://seusacco.co.ke/
Email address info@seusacco.co.ke
Phone numbers: *721387971 (Maxmill) and *721558777 (Ephidelis)

The above website, email, phone numbers don’t seem to be related to South Eastern Kenya University (Staff) Sacco. The true website for South Eastern Kenya University is: www.seku.ac.ke.

ncc-ke.com
Website/domain name: www.ncc-ke.com, http://ncc-ke.com/
Email address: info@ncc-ke.com
Phone numbers: *202323011 and *707148265.

The above details may not be related to National Cement Company Limited or National Cement Company (K) Limited which manufactures and markets Simba Cement. See reviews about ncc-ke.com on facebook: https://web.facebook.com/nccke/reviews

Be warned, Take care!

BMWP and ASPT Calculator

Where to find a BMWP and ASPT Calculator

Are you looking for a BMWP AND ASPT Calculator or a template for calculating BMWP and ASPT scores? Or, are you looking for an overall BMWP score calculator, a template for calculating Biological Monitoring Working Party score? Calculating BMWP and ASPT scores can be a challenge especially if you have a lot of data to work with and yet you need to calculate BMWP scores fast. However, with a template for calculating BMWP scores, you can calculate BMWP scores fast and easily. Likewise, with an ASPT score calculator, you can calculate ASPT scores fast and easily. Here is a BMWP score calculator and ASPT score calculator that you can use to calculate overall BMWP score and ASPT score for your sites or samples easily.

Download BMWP and ASPT Calculator

The calculator is a template in excel format that you have to download to use. After downloading the file, fill in the necessary information (such as the names of macroinvertebrate families, their corresponding tolerance or sensitivity scores, and the number of family members observed in a site or sample). Here are a few words that may be used to describe the template:

ASPT score calculate excel
ASPT score calculate template
Average Score Per Taxon score calculator
BMWP score calculate excel
BMWP score calculate template
Template for calculating ASPT score
Template for calculating Average Score Per Taxon score
Total BMWP score calculator

Download BMWP AND ASPT Calculator/Template

What are BMWP and ASPT Scores?

At this point, you may be wondering what is BMWP and what is ASPT? The Biological Monitoring Working Party (BMWP) and the Average Score Per Taxon (ASPT) are commonly used methods of assessing the quality of aquatic ecosystems. In simple terms, they are means of measuring the quality of water in a site or sample. Both BMWP and ASPT work on the principle that different aquatic invertebrates have different levels of tolerance or sensitivity to pollutants. The ASPT score for a site or sample is derived from BMWP score as you will see later on. BMWP specifically assumes that different aquatic invertebrates are sensitive to organic pollution to different levels.

Organic pollution often leads to enrichment of the aquatic environment with nutrients, which in turn impacts the level of dissolved oxygen in water. Organisms which are highly sensitive or intolerant to pollution will easily die or migrate from polluted environments. Against this background, the BMWP system assigns scores to each macro invertebrate family/taxon based on how sensitive they are to organic pollution. As an example, the presence of stoneflies and mayflies, which are highly sensitive to pollutants, around a water body indicates that the water body is very clean. It is for this reason that these organism families are often assigned a high sensitivity or tolerance score (say 10.0). Invertebrates such as worms (Oligochaeta) which are less sensitive to pollution (or highly tolerant to pollution) are usually assigned a low score (say 1.0).

The BMWP system assumes that the higher the number of different macroinvertebrate families in a site, the better that quality of water therein. This assumption is based on the notion that water bodies with less pollutants attract even more “sensitive” species, which translates to a higher diversity. Different aquatic invertebrates are suited to different geographical location and ecological conditions. Against this reality, for the BMWP system to provide more accurate results, the BMWP or sensitivity score of each of the macroinvertebrate family/taxon should be calibrated to the specific geographical and ecological conditions where they are found.

How to calculate the BMWP and ASPT score

The (overall) BMWP score for a site or sample is computed by adding the sensitivity or tolerance scores of all the macroinvertebrate families/taxa in the site or sample. This is what the Biological Monitoring Working Party score calculator is designed to do. Generally, a higher (overall) BMWP score reflects better water quality. It is important to note that the BMWP score does not depend on the actual number of individual organisms that are members of a family observed in a location or sample but rather on the presence or absence of the family.

ASPT is calculated by dividing the Biological Monitoring Working Party (BMWP) score by the number of families/taxa represented in the aquatic ecosystem of the location being studied. Generally, a higher ASPT score reflects better water quality. The main difference between BMWP score and ASPT score is that the latter is not dependent on family richness.

ASPT score formula
ASPT score = BMWP score ÷ Number of macroinvertebrate families or taxa.

BMWP Score Calculation Example

In a site along river ABC, the following data was collected in a particular month. Compute the BMWP Score for the site. The sensitivity scores for the different macroinvertebrates usually found in the ABC river ecosystem are also provided in the table below.

Taxon/Family	Number of family members observed	Sensitivity Score
Ancylidae	2	5.6
Asellidae	3	2.1
Baetidae	12	5.3
Caenidae	0	7.1
Chironomidae	9	3.7
Chloroperlidae	5	12.4
Crangonyctidae	0	6
Dendrocoelidae	0	5
Dugesiidae	0	5
Dytiscidae	20	4.8
Elmidae	32	6.4
Ephemerellidae	0	7.7
Erpobdellidae	0	2.8
Gammaridae	80	4.5
Gerridae	0	4.7
Glossiphoniidae	2	3.1
Glossosomatidae	0	7
Goeridae	0	9.9
Heptageniidae	15	9.8
Hydrobiidae	85	3
Hydropsychidae	3	6.7
Hydroptilidae	0	6.7
Lepidostomatidae	5	10.4
Leptoceridae	20	7.8
Leuctridae	5	9.9
Rhyacophilidae	50	8.3
Sericostomatidae	0	9.2
Simuliidae	0	5.8
Sphaeriidae	20	3.6
Taeniopterygidae	0	10.8
Tipulidae	2	5.5

To determine the BMWP score, add the sensitivity scores for all the families that had at least one organism observed. In other words, exclude from the addition any family or taxa that had zero number of families observed (e.g. Caenidae, Crangonyctidae, and Dendrocoelidae). In the table below, the total in the sensitivity score column is the overall BMWP score, total BMWP score, or simply, BMWP score.

	Taxon/Family	Number of family members observed	Sensitivity Score
1	Ancylidae	2	5.6
2	Asellidae	3	2.1
3	Baetidae	12	5.3
4	Chironomidae	9	3.7
5	Chloroperlidae	5	12.4
6	Dytiscidae	20	4.8
7	Elmidae	32	6.4
8	Gammaridae	80	4.5
9	Glossiphoniidae	2	3.1
10	Heptageniidae	15	9.8
11	Hydrobiidae	85	3
12	Hydropsychidae	3	6.7
13	Lepidostomatidae	5	10.4
14	Leptoceridae	20	7.8
15	Leuctridae	5	9.9
16	Rhyacophilidae	50	8.3
17	Sphaeriidae	20	3.6
18	Tipulidae	2	5.5
	BMWP Score		112.9

ASPT Score Example
As previously noted, the formula for finding the ASPT score is: BMWP score/ Number of families represented.

The BMWP Score = 112.9
The number of families which were represented in the data are 18
The ASPT score = 112.9/18 = 6.27
How to interpret BMWP and ASPT scores.

Different studies and locations interpret the BMWP score using different keys. Here we present two commonly used keys.

KEY A		KEY B
BMWP Score	Category	BMWP Score	Category	Interpretation
<15	Very Bad	0-10	Very Poor	Heavily Polluted
15-35	Bad (Very Contaminated)	11-40	Poor	Polluted or Impacted
36-60	Bad (Contaminated)	41-70	Moderate	Moderately Impacted
61-100	Moderate	71-100	Good	Clean but slightly impacted
101-120	Good	>100	Very Good	Unpolluted/Unimpacted
>120	Excellent

ASPT Score	Category	ASPT Score	Category
0-3.6	Bad	0-3.6	Bad
3.6-4.2	Moderate	3.6-4.2	Moderate
4.3-4.7	Good	4.3-4.7	Good
4.8-5.4	Very Good	4.8-5.4	Very Good
>5.4	Excellent	>5.4	Excellent

Using Key A, based on the BMWP score, water quality in the site studied is “Good”. Using the same key, based on the ASPT score, water quality at the site is “Excellent”.

This BMWP score calculate template can help you perform such calculations fast and easily. Using the template, you can compute scores for a maximum of 30 individual locations or periods at once. Also, the template allows you to enter the names of up to 66 families at a time. In addition to computing the BMWP and ASPT scores, the template categorises the water quality of the site based on the scores found. Save time and effort by calculating BMWP and/or ASPT scores using the BMWP and ASPT Calculator.

Download BMWP and ASPT Calculator

Recovery of Forest Soils Following Wildfire

Tedim and Leone (2020) define wildfire as any unplanned and uncontrolled fire started on shrubs or forest. National Geographic has defined the term as an uncontrolled fire that that burns in the wildland vegetation, often in rural areas. The term has also been defined by Belcher et al. (2021) as any non-structure fire other than prescribed fire that occurs in a wildland. Also called vegetation, bush, or forest fire, wildfire has been part and parcel of the earth’s history over the past 400 million years, and is thus not a new phenomenon (Belcher et al., 2021). A wildfire may ignite spontaneously as a result of natural causes such as a lightning strike or may be caused by human activities. Whatever their cause, they can greatly disturb forest soil and ecosystems especially given that fire can have a significant impact on the structural, physical, chemical, mineralogical, and biological properties of soil (Certini, 2005; Shrestha, 2009) through mechanisms such as vitalisation, erosion, oxidation, leaching, and ash transfer (Xiang et al., 2014). The recovery of soil after a forest fire is an issue of great importance to conservationists, environmentalists, governments and other players. This paper seeks to answer the question: can forest soils recover from wildfire? The paper begins by discussing the impact of fire severity on soil properties before focusing on the recovery of forest soils following a wildfire.

Impact of Fire Severity on Soil Properties

Several properties of forest soil can change as a result of exposure to a wild fire. Some of these properties include level of organic carbon, nutrients, water holding capacity, aggregate stability, and hydrophobicity (Agbeshie et al., 2022; DeBano, 1990; Santín & Doerr, 2016). The level of which these properties can be affected depend on the duration, frequency, timing, type, and intensity of fire (Certini 2005; Xiang et al., 2014). Most analysts agree that out of the three factors, fire intensity has the greatest influence on the properties of forest soil during or following a wildfire (Certini, 2005; Santín & Doerr, 2016). Recovery of forest soils following wildfire … Continue reading ...

Next article: Aberdeen Harbour Baseline Survey.

How to Sell Documents and Earn Money

Students and writers across the world are consistently searching for information that will help them study, revise, solve problems, or answer questions. Many of them are willing to pay for documents, such as study materials, if they believe they will benefit from the documents. This situation has created an opportunity for students, writers, and professionals in different fields or with different talents and skills to sell documents and earn money.

If you are a student, maintaining a good academic record can be difficult if you have side hustles or a part-time job. As a student, you definitely wish to earn some cash without spending so much time and effort working, at the expense of your studies and academic performance. You need a side hustle that can earn you some money without having to spend so much money on capital and so much effort and time in managing your side hustle. There is no doubt that few side-hustles meet these important requirements.

One of the few ways to make money as a student or writer that do not require a lot of time, effort, and capital is selling study materials. Study materials come in different forms: study notes, course notes, book summaries, questions and answers, essays, flashcards, and other study resources. Have you ever wondered how some of your fellow students make money without going to work? They are probably writing and selling study notes, essays, summaries, and other materials that they know other students will need. In short, they sell documents and earn money. It’s a secret side hustle that they probably do not want you to know about. Think about it, already you’re writing notes, essays, and other study materials for school, so why not share them with other students to help them and make money? Yes, you can sell your study notes or study documents and make some good cash.

Now that you have already learnt one of the ways to make money as a student you are probably asking yourself, where can I sell my study notes and what kind of documents can I sell? You can sell your and earn money through Freelansas. To sell documents through Freelansas is as easy as ABC. It’s as simple as creating a free vendor’s account, uploading your documents, and setting a price for the documents. Within a few seconds, you will have your personal store from where to upload and sell your study notes.

Now regarding what kind of documents you can sell, there is a whole list of study materials that you can sell to make money including study notes, book summaries, essays, flashcards, mind maps, case study samples, presentations, e-books and many more. You can sell your documents as single pieces or as a batch, it’s all up to you. Also, the price that you set to sell your documents is all up to you. To increase the chances of other students finding and buying your documents, we recommend that you promote them on your social media accounts and by word of mouth to your friends. You earn a commission every time your document is actually sold.

Sell Study Notes Online and Make Passive Income

sell study notes Have you ever wondered how you can make money as a student or thought about real ways to make money from home for free? Have you wondered whether there is a way how to make money online for beginners? In this article, I will show you one good way how to earn money online for students and writers.

Many students and young writers wish to make some money without much effort and without sacrificing their precious study time. A lot of students aren’t aware that they can make passive income by selling study notes online. Yes, while it sounds unreal, you can actually make some quick and easy cash by selling study notes online. If you are in doubt, consider these questions: Have you ever needed essay samples or examples to give you an idea on what to write on or how to answer a question? Have you ever needed sample questions and answers to help with your revision? Have you ever wondered why someone has not yet posted some information online that could help you answer some difficult or challenging question? Have you ever been in a situation where your time is so constrained that you wish someone had written notes, summaries, essays, flashcards, or model answers that you could even pay for to access? You probably have answered “yes” to one or more of these questions, just like countless other students and writers. As you can see, many people are searching and are willing to pay for information than can help them gain new knowledge and skills or that can help them answer some question.

Do you now realize that your study notes, study guides, flash cards, summaries, essays, and revision notes, and other study materials are worth money? As a student, you almost have no reason to complain and whine about having no cash; you can spend a little time writing good notes, answering questions, or writing book or course summaries that others may find useful and sell them for cash.

Selling study notes is a side hustle idea for students that many people do not know of. Knowing this side-hustle idea at this time places you on a path that you can follow to make money as a student or writer. Whether you are in college or at home, you can make study notes, guides, and other study materials that other people can find valuable and worth buying. Unlike many other side hustles, you don’t need any capital to earn money by selling study materials online; all you need to do is make good notes or write good content from your lectures or through research. You also don’t need an office to make money through this side hustle; it is one of the few real ways to make money from home for free. In addition to making passive income, you help other people in need of information when you sell notes online.

You can sell study notes for a class you’re currently attending and thus make money writing. You can also sell notes relating to a class you previously attended. Additionally, you can produce a sell-able document by simply researching on a subject or topic that you feel will be of interest to other people (but that is not necessarily related to a class or course you have attended).

Now that you know you can sell study notes, perhaps you are wondering how or where you can sell them. You can approach junior students to purchase your study notes or market them through social media, which requires a lot of effort and time. Better still, you can sell and share your study notes to other students and writers through our online platform and make money. It only takes a few easy steps for you to be able to sell your study notes or study material online on Freelansas. First, you need to sign up for a free vendor’s account. After creating an account, you need to upload your study notes, summaries, guides, or other study materials and set a price for your material. Every time your study note, summary, flashcards, or other study material is actually sold, you get a generous commission. Whenever someone purchases your document, the money you have earned is directly credited to your account.

In summary, selling study notes online can be a quick and easy way to earn money. For students, it is one good side hustle idea for students and a way to make passive income. Upload your first study notes or study materials on Freelansas and start making money today. It only takes a few seconds to be on your way to earning from your study materials.

First Response and Emergency Care – Component 1

First Response and Emergency Care – Component 1 Revision Questions

Emergency Care and First Response

Q. You have been called to attend to an emergency situation at a noisy house party. The person you need to attend to in your capacity as a first responder is a responsive female who is slumped over on a sofa outside in the garden. The information you are getting from bystanders is disjointed and confusing. Briefly discuss why a <C>ABCDE approach is applied in the primary assessment of patients. Also briefly explain each of the elements of the assessment in the context of the female patient in this case. Ensure to include the airway stepwise approach in your explanation.

Q. You are in a scene in which you have to attend to four casualties. Classify each of the casualties using a triage sieve (MPTT-24 or NARU). Specify which triage sieve you have used.

Casualty 1: The casualty is mobile, alert, and shows no signs of catastrophic bleeding. The casualty’s airway is clear, has a pulse rate of 94 beats per minute and a breathing rate of 12 respirations per minute.

Casualty 2: The casualty is immobile and has catastrophic bleeding from an amputated hand. The patient is alert, has a clear airway with breathing rate of 18 respirations per minute and a pulse of 114 beats per minute.

Casualty 3: The patient is lying on the floor, confused, but is able to walk and has no sign of catastrophic bleeding.

Casualty 4: The casualty shows no sign of catastrophic bleeding from a cut arm and leg. The patient has noisy breathing (10 respirations per minute), is unconscious, and has a pulse of 110 beats per minute

Q. Draw the human heart and label the following parts: Aorta, Superior vena cava, right pulmonary artery, left ventricle, pulmonary valve, Descending aorta, aorta valve, right atrium, left pulmonary vein, intraventricular septum, and atrioventricular bundle branches.

Q. Briefly explain the heart’s electrical conduction system, its nervous control, and how conduction affects the cardiac cycle (500 words max).

Q. Define atheroma, arteriosclerosis, and myocardial infarction.

Q. Explain the connection of the three conditions (stated above) to the development of Coronary Artery Disease (CAD).Connection.

Q. Briefly explain how arrhythmias and heart failure affect heart function.

Q. What is an ECG? What does an ECG measure?

Q. You are presented with a diagram of a 3-lead electrocardiogram (ECG). Identify the following components: T wave, R wave, and P- wave.

Q. List the health and safety principles for medical gases:

Q. You have been called to manage a casualty who has collapsed in the workplace and has become unconscious. The casualty’s airway has become “noisy” and you are considering managing it. State at least four contraindications or cautions in relation to the use of a Supraglottic Airway Device (SAD) for airway management.

Q. For the management of each of these patients, state the medical gas to use, the method of administration or dosage, and caution(s) and contraindications for the use of the medical gas you have stated (where applicable):

Patient 1: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, oxygen saturations of 72%, breathing difficulty
Patient 2: Pregnant woman, experiencing regular contractions, pain score of 8
Patient 3: Football injury, pain score of 10
Patient 4: Cardiac arrest, oxygen saturations of 52%
Patient 5: Traumatised patient, bleeding heavily, oxygen saturations of 95%

Find attempted solutions to these questions here.

First Response and Emergency Care Component 2

First Response and Emergency Care Component 2 – Revision Notes/Questions

Q. Briefly explain the functions of the following components of the respiratory system: lung, diaphragm, intercostal muscles, parietal pleura, visceral pleura, and pleural cavity.

Q. Explain the ‘cycle of breathing’

Q. Define “elasticity” and explain the effects it has on the lungs when reduced.

Q. Define “compliance” and explain the effects it has on the lungs when reduced.

Q. Define “airway resistance” and explain the effects it has on the lungs when reduced.

Q. A man has been hit by a car and you have been called to attend to him. He seems to be unconscious. His breathing is fast and shallow and he has a weak radial pulse. Your inspection of the casualty reveals that the left side of his chest is not rising and falling equally. There is no sign of catastrophic haemorrhage, his circulation is compromised, and there is a snoring sound emanating from his airway. Suggest a treatment plan for the casualty that includes scene consideration and additional resources, assessment and management of the patient, and his transport to definitive care.

Q. Label the bones on the diagram:

Q. What are the functions of bone?

Q. What are the functions of muscle?

Q. What are the functions of tendons?

Q. What are the functions of ligaments?

Q. What are the functions of joints?

Q. What are the two main components of the central nervous system (CNS)?

Q. What are the functions of the Central Nervous System (CNS)?

Q. What are the functions of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

Q. Define sexual assault.

Q. A patient whose has experienced sexual assault may experience different signs, symptoms and issues. Name some of the signs, symptoms, and issues, categorising them as either physiological or psychological.

Q. You have been called to attend to a female patient who seems to have been sexually assaulted. Briefly discuss the considerations needed to care for the patient. In your discussion, ensure to touch on the following issues: the assessment of time critical injuries, forensic considerations, approach towards the patient, communications with the patient, patient’s wishes with regard to contacting the police, and care pathways (Sexual Assault Referral Centre).

Q. What are the roles of the following crew members when attending to a major incident: attendant, driver, first crew on scene, and first responder on scene?

Q. What is triage (focus on treatment of patients, recording of findings, and special considerations for children)?

Q. Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear and Explosive (CBRNE) incidents can have several effects. For each of the elements of CBRNE, state the routes of entry and the possible effects that should be considered.

Q. You have been called to attend to a situation in a public area that is heavily populated. A member of the public tells you that there is a rucksack that has been left unattended for an hour or so. Provide a summary of how you will initially deal with the package and how you will act when the situation is considered a terrorist incident. State what “METHANE” stands for and provide details that you would include in your “METHANE” report.

Q. Briefly describe how you would manage a patient with traumatic chest injuries with a focus on open chest wound, pneumothorax, tension pneumothorax, haemothorax, and flail chest.

Q. An explosion has occurred in an event or ceremony in which roughly 2,600 people are in attendance. As a result of the explosion that has occurred in the refreshment zone, the Senior Officer on scene has declared the situation to be a major incident. What is a major incident and what are its four stages?

Find attempted solutions to these First Response and Emergency Care – Component 2 revision questions here.

The Role of Cost Information in the Pricing Decision

Pricing Decisions: The Role of Cost Information In the Pricing Decision

Prompt:

The Role of Cost Information in the Pricing Decision You are working in the management accounting department of ABC which manufactures a range of consumer electronics products. The current range comprises 50 different products and the company launches around 10 new products every year.

Your manager has asked you to write a paper which addresses issues relating to pricing decisions for all the company’s products, with a particular focus on the prices set for new products.

The current approach used by the company is a cost based approach by which a predetermined percentage is added to the estimated full cost of the product. However the directors of the company have recently questioned this approach.

You are required to discuss the following in your paper:

The role of cost information in the pricing decision.
The advantages and limitations of the company’s current approach.
A range of alternative strategies for pricing products which could be adopted by the company, including a discussion of the circumstances for which the different strategies would be appropriate.

Discussions have been taking place within the company concerning the pricing of one of the products to be launched within the next three months. The current planned selling price is £60 per unit and at this price it is expected that 5,000 units will be sold over the next year. However the marketing director has suggested that the sales quantity and profits from this product could be increased by reducing the unit selling price. The production director disagrees and believes that the selling price would have to be increased to improve the level of the profit.

You are required to:

Analyse the relationship between selling price and the level of profit for this product based on the information provided in this briefing.
Within your paper, present your analysis in an appropriate format. This analysis should include an appropriate chart or charts as an integral part of your paper.
Provide a full commentary on your analysis. This discussion should include the assumptions in and the limitations of your approach, a discussion of the views of the two directors related to the conclusions of your analysis and an assessment of the relevance to the organisation’s pricing decisions in the light of your answer to part a).

Note: you should use a spreadsheet for the calculations which underpin the analysis presented in the paper. Your spreadsheet must be submitted to support your paper.

Additional information:

The company estimates product costs based on apportionment of overheads to products using labour hours. Prices set are based on full cost plus a 25% profit mark-up.

The following information relates to this product:

The manufacture of each unit of the product requires materials costing £24 and 30 minutes of direct labour at a rate of £25 per hour.
The variable overhead costs per unit are £5.50 per unit.
Fixed costs for the year to be apportioned to this product are expected to be:
Production costs: £24,000
Administration and management costs: £5,000
Selling costs: £1,000
Some market research has recently been carried out to try and determine the effect on the level of sales demand if changes were made to the selling price of the product. This market research has suggested that reducing the selling price to £57 would increase the sales volume to 5,250 units for the year whereas increasing the selling price to £63 would result in a fall in sales to 4,750 units during the same period.

Assessment criteria
(10%) Discussion of the importance of cost information for pricing
(10%) Discussion of the advantages and limitations of the company’s current approach.
(25%) Review of alternative strategies for pricing products.
(10%) Analysis of scenario
(25%) Commentary on spreadsheet analysis and presentation of results.
(10%) Effective communication and appropriate style of presentation.
(10%) Use and presentation of academic research to support arguments.

Pricing Decisions

The role of cost information in the pricing decision

Cost is one of the factors that affect pricing decisions, hence cost information is an important factor in coming up with pricing decisions (University of Minnesota, 2015). Costs can influence prices through its effect on supply. In this regard, a company will be willing to supply more products the more the cost is lower relative to the price. It is often the case that as the firm increases supply of a product, the cost of producing an additional unit initially decreases. However, a point is reached where the cost of producing an additional unit begins to rise. The company will be willing to continue to supply its products for as long as the profit it makes from selling extra units exceeds the cost of producing them (the extra units). Another way that costs influence pricing is that all the costs incurred by the firm should be recouped through its product sales (Meehan et al., 2011; Smith, 2011). This means that the higher the units of a product that a firm sells, the less each unit is required to contribute towards covering the fixed costs. This in turn implies that the firm can afford to set a lower price for its products if it applies a cost-based approach to pricing or can make higher profits if applies value-based pricing (Leijon, 2017). It is by understanding the cost of producing the products that companies can set product prices so that they (the prices) appeal to consumers and at the same time serve to maximize operating income (Tarjomefa, 2015). Continue reading …

Central Traits Primacy Effect and Recency Effect

Assignment prompt:

Explain the concepts of central traits, primacy effect and recency effect and their importance in the formation of attitudes.
Define stereotyping and explain the possible cognitive and social functions of stereotyping.
Outline theories of attitude formation and stereotyping.
What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination and how is stereotyping involved in their development?
Outline and critically evaluate two theories of the causes of prejudice and discrimination.

Explain the concepts of ‘central traits, primacy effect and recency effect’ and their importance in the formation of attitudes.

Based on the results of his study on personality, Gordon Allport grouped personality traits into three main categories; cardinal traits, central traits and secondary traits (Harvard University, 2021). Allport believed that traits make up the basic unit of the person’s personality and defined traits as the predisposition to respond and react in the same way to stimuli in the environment (Niwlikar, 2022). According to Allport’s theory of personality, cardinal traits are those traits that dominate an individual’s personality. These traits are at the top of the traits hierarchy and are the main controller of a person’s personality such that a person may be known for those traits only. As an example, Mahatma Gandhi is known for his honesty, Mother Theresa for altruism or kindness, and Adolf Hitler for being a ruthless dictator.

Secondary traits, which are at the base of Allport’s traits hierarchy, are present in all people and can influence behaviour. However, these traits are only expressed in certain situations or circumstances and are dependent upon immediate context (Niwlikar, 2022). On their part, central traits, which are in the middle of the hierarchy are general characteristics based on which personalities are formed. While they are not as dominating as the cardinal traits, they are the main characteristics that are used by people to describe other people. All people have varying levels of central traits and these traits influence but do not determine a person’s behaviour.

According to Troyer (2011), the primacy effect is the tendency for individuals to recall information presented first (or at the beginning of a list) compared to information received earlier on (or in the middle of the list). On its part, the recency effect is the tendency by people to recall more clearly the information received most recently (Morrison et al., 2014). The primacy effect explains why people tend to be able to recall information that they received first. Experts believe that the information people receive first is given pre-eminence over that received subsequently. Continue reading …

Nationalism and the Modern State

Nationalism has been defined by Breuilly (2001) as political movements that seek or exercise state power and justify their actions based on nationalist arguments. It has also been defined by Hutchinson and Smith (1994) as an ideology based on the premise that a person’s commitment and loyalty to the nation state supersedes other personal or group interests. According to Breuilly (2001), three main assertions are ascribed to nationalism. The first claim is that a nation exists if it has a well-defined and distinctive personality. The second assumption is that the nation’s interests and values take precedence above those of the individual and organizations. The final assertion is that the nation must be as free as possible from the domination of other nations, governments, or entities.

Many scholars agree that there is a strong link between nationalism and the modern state (Conversi, 2012; Vincent 2010). The concept of “modern state” is fraught with dispute. Critics have condemned as insufficient the usual definition of the modern state as a human society that only claims the legal use of force inside a specified territory (Morris n.d.). Critics point out that if this definition is adopted holistically, then criminal organizations, the Roman civitas, and the Greek poleis would qualify as modern states, which is obviously absurd. Morris (n.d., p.200) defines a modern state as a political organization occupying a distinctively shaped region that asserts sovereignty over its domains and independence from other states. Scholars do not generally agree on whether the modern state is a product of nationalism or nationalism is a product of the modern state. This paper seeks to answer the question: Is nationalism a product of the modern state, or was the modern state produced by nationalism?

Many historians observe that the modern state emerged in Europe between the 15th and 18th centuries and extended to other regions of the world through colonialism and conquest (CQ Press 2015). Continue reading …